3) Mahler 4)Modes 5)Wimme 6) Heyman

 3) Mahler: Salvadorian in the US Status in limbo.

The social distance of most Salvatorian travel, the difference between the lifestyle they had in their homeland and the lifestyle they now lead in the US-dwarfs the physical distance traveled Most people in the US are several generations removed from living on the hand. But the majority of the Salvadorians Mahler studied on Long Island journeyed from small village agricultural life to late XX century suburbia in days or weeks. This change is abrupt and there is also little time to make the adjustment. 

-Overview of Salvadorians in the US: the war is the direct cause behind the migration of a bast majority.

-National and local demographics The 1990 census provides that the vast majority of migrants are a median age of 25.4 years

Inmigration status= the majority entered in US without proper authorization

-Obtaining Permanent Legal status: "when employer sanction into full effect in  1988, thousands and thousands of undocumented scrambled to obtain work authorization

-Obtain Temporary  Legal status: Political Asylum, Protected Status

-life as an Undocumented Inmigrant

-Obtaining counterfeit documentation

4)Modes

By providing housing, education to their children left in the homelands, and even subsidizing health care and pensions to the elderly, Salvadorians in the U(S have developed different forms of transnationalism. Even so, although they have highly contributed to relieving poverty in El Salvador, the structural conditions in their homelands still push them to meet labor needs in the USA. As a result, many Salvadorians continue coming into the area clandestinely, leaving their spouses and children in El Salvador in order to improve their family´s quality of life.

Salvadorian immigrants depend on the aid of their own close social network not only to emigrate and adapt to the USA but also to keep their pre- migratory family commitments in El Salvador. Since family separation usually span periods lasting from 10 to more than 15 years, children over 21 years of age face many more challenges, since they are not eligible to claim preferences categories for family reunification

-Temporary  protected status and Adaptation.

Most Salvadorian remain separated from their children since the legal status does not allow them for family reunification.

-Transnational residence. By limiting Salvadorian social mobility in the USA, this legal temporariness also increases transnational activities among them as strategies of Adaptation.

Conclusion:

Many Salvadorians decide to emigrate to Washington based on a system structured through their own family network support. By deploying heterogeneous strategies, Salvadorian try to overcome barriers and socio-cultural and structural barriers that limit their settlement while supporting their families.

5)Wimme: Methodological Nationalism and migration.

The article examines methodological nationalism, a conceptual tendency that was central to the development of the social sciences and undermined more than a century of migration studies. Methodological nationalism is the naturalization of the global regime of nation-states by the social sciences. Transnational studies, we argue, including the study of transnational migration, are linked to periods of intense globalization such as the turn of the XXI century. Yet transnational studies have their own contradictions that may reintroduce methodological nationalism in other guises. In studying migration, the challenge is to avoid both extreme fluids and the bounds of nationalist thought.

The three variants of nationalism in social sciences.

We have identified 3 variants of methodological nationalism: 1) ignoring or disregarding the fundamental importance of nationalism for modern societies; this is often combined with 2) naturalization, taking for granted that the boundaries of the nation-state delimit and define the unit of analysis; 3) territorial limitation which confines the study of social processes to the political and geographic boundaries os a nation-state.

The 3 variants may intersect and mutually reinforce each other, forming a coherent structure and describing the social work. The three variants are more or less prominent in different fields of inquiry. Ignoring is the dominant modus of methodological nationalism in grand theory; naturalization of normal empirical science; territorial limitation of the study of nationalism and state-building.

6) Heyman: State Effects on labor exploitation.

The power of enforcing labor control and exploitation is often attributed to states. However, such claims need careful empirical and analytical verification. In order to do this, we should view states from below, involving state agencies, state workers, and the policed population, elements that are ignored in most state theories. In the case of undocumented immigrants who cross the United States Mexico, USMx.

The smuggling, transportation, and job arrangements required to overcome border and interior enforcement lead undocumented immigrants to enter conspiracies to avoid the law. USA undocumented immigration policy is seen from below us nor a deliberate system for labor control but follows a consistent pattern of stigmatizing immigrant labor, forcing it into an exploitative underworld. This analysis unites the current anti-immigration theme in US politics and the actual persistence of illegal, exploited labor in that nation. 

The United States Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) makes about 1,6 millions arrest undocumented aliens a year. At the same time, undocumented immigrants fill the competitive and poorly paid sector of the US economy.

-Undocumented Immigration in the US polity. Although the US put much effort into interdicting immigrants at the border, it does not work. The overwhelming majority of arrested are undocumented from Mexico. However, 90 % of arrests accept voluntary departure.

-The INS in Action: try to prevent non-border undocumented immigration, but the INS hardly monitors persons, mostly Mexicans, who overstay visas and work illegally, although they may be majority residents interior of US.

    -Smuggling. The INS handles smuggling cases in 2 ways. Two small, specialized branches, both called Anti-smuggling (one in the Border Patrol and one outside it), focus on high-level rings hauling non-Mexicans.

    -Ethnic targeting in the borderlands.  Much INS interior enforcement, in western states, is a legacy from the days of direct agricultural labor control combined with spillover from border control.

    -Employer sanctions. Small workplaces, which characterize most employers of undocumented immigrants, contain personalized relations of power, trust, and distrust.

    -Undocumented immigrants /INS: conspiracies to avoid the Law. Metropolitan settings may be less strongly affected by INS avoidance. In non-border cities, the INS is undermanned. 

Undocumented immigrants are vulnerable to super-exploitation when conspiracies to avoid the law compromise them.